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Jan 23, 2025
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Abstract
This study investigates the reading difficulties encountered by Grade One learners in District 1 of the Schools Division of Bago City for the school year 2023-2024 and examines their impact on academic per-formance. Utilizing a descriptive-correlational research design, the study assessed 231 Grade One learners from five elementary schools using a modified Reading Difficulty Checklist. Findings indicate that learners experience moderate difficulties across five key areas of reading: phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and com-prehension, with comprehension posing the greatest challenge. The study also reveals that demographic factors such as age, sex, parents’ educational attainment, and family income significantly influence reading proficiency. Additionally, a strong correlation was found be-tween reading difficulties and academic performance, highlighting the need for targeted intervention programs. Based on the results, an in-tervention plan is proposed to enhance reading skills and improve academic outcomes for young learners.
Article Details
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
How to Cite
Pesales, P. M. R. P., & Apohen, S. L. (2025). Reading Difficulties of Grade One Learners in Mother Tongue Based- Multi-lingual Education (MTB-MLE) in Relation to Performance: Basis for Intervention Plan. International Journal of Multidisciplinary: Applied Business and Education Research, 6(1), 12-32. https://doi.org/10.11594/ijmaber.06.01.02
References
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Agbofa, F. J. K. (2023). Assessment of the im-pact of reading difficulties on learners’ academic performance: a case of junior high schools in the New Juaben North Municipal of Ghana. Creative Education, 14, 124-136. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.4236/ce.2023.141010
Ahmad, S., Ajmal, F., and Hafeez, M. (2023). Effects of fathers’ level of education on their children’s english reading perfor-mance. Archives of Educational Studies (ARES), 3(1), 79–96. Retrieved from https://ares.pk/ojs/index.php/ares/article/view/52
Alibraheim, E. A. and Taifour, E. A. (2023). The relationship between mothers’ educa-tional levels and their children’s academ-ic performance. Pegem Journal of Educa-tion and Instruction, Volume 13, No. 3. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1387928.pdf.
Ampofo, J. A. (2019). Research topic: investi-gating reading difficulties among class six pupils of Wa basic school complex. Lam-bert Academic Publishing. Research Gate. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342165160_RESEARCH_TOPIC_INVESTIGAT-ING_READING_DIFFICULTIES_AMONG_CLASS_SIX_PUPILS_OF_WA_BASIC_SCHOOL_COMPLEX
Bannow B. S. and Cushman, M. (2023). Sex matters: policy on reporting sex as a bio-logical variable at research and practice in thrombosis and hemostasis. Res Pract Thromb Haemost. 2023 Nov 7;7(8):102256. doi: 10.1016/j.rpth.2023.102256. PMID: 38053984; PMCID: PMC10694598.
Bano, J., Jabeen, Z., and Qutoshi, S. (2018). Perceptions of teachers about the role of parents in developing reading habits of children to improve their academic per-formance in schools. Journal of Education and Educational Development. 5. 10.22555/joeed.v5i1.1445.
Barberg, J. (2022). The effect of choice in read-ing: motivation, engagement, andEnjoy-ment. Minnesota State University Moor-head. Retrieved from https://red.mnstate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1767&context=thesis.
Brooks, John R., "The Definitions of Income" (2018). Georgetown Law Faculty Publi-cations and Other Works. 1952. Retrieved from https://scholarship.law.georgetown.edu/facpub/1952
Brower, R. A. (2020). The relationship be-tween entrance age and academic achievement in literacy skills for kinder-garten students in a rural school. Re-trieved from https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/cgi/viewcon-tent.cgi?params=/context/doctoral/article/3406/&path_info=Brower_Manuscript_FINAL.pdf
Buckle, J. (2023). How to write an intervention plan. Panorama Education. Retrieved from https://www.panoramaed.com/how-to-write-intervention-plan-tem-plate#:~:text=for%202023%2D24,What%20Is%20an%20Intervention%20Plan%3F,timeline%2C%20and%20progress%20monitoring%20method.
Casas, R. R. L. (2023). Family income classifi-cation on students’ academic perfor-mance: a correlational study. Psychology and Education: A Multidisciplinary Jour-nal, Volume: 12, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.8278214. Retrieved from
Retrieved from https://scimatic.org/storage/journals/11/pdfs/1883.pdf
Chen, Q., Kong, Y., Gao, W., & Mo, L. (2018). Effects of socioeconomic status, parent-child relationship, and learning motiva-tion on reading ability. Frontiers in Psy-chology, 9, 1297. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01297
Child Trends. (2018). Educational attainment. Retrieved from www.childtrends.org/?indicators=educational-attainment
Chiu, C. and Ko, H. (2019). Parental factors re-lated to children’s reading: evidence from Comparing transnational marriage fami-lies and local families. Retrieved from https://www.iea.nl/sites/default/files/2019-04/IRC2008_Chiu_Ko_0.pdf
Claessen, M., Dzidic, P., Boyes, M., Badcock, N., Nayton, M., & Leitao, S. (2020). Educa-tors’ perceptions of the impact of reading difficulties for young people. Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties, 25, 51-64. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1080/19404158.2020.1734952
De Guzman, W. G. and De Vera, P. V. (2018). English language performance and diffi-culties of pupils in the mother tongue – based (MTB) medium of instruction. Re-trieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1247323.pdf
Department of Education. (2019). ‘Bawat bata bumabasa’ a priority in DepEd’s quest for quality education. Retrieved from https://www.deped.gov.ph/2019/11/28/bawat-bata-bumabasa-a-priority-in-depeds-quest-for-quality-education/
Dong, et al. (2019). Intergenerational trans-mission of education: the case of rural China. China Economic Review. Re-trieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0190740920312093
Esteves, G. (2019). Reading ability of grade 1 pupils in Tabangao elementary school. Ascendens Asia Journal of Multidiscipli-nary Research Abstracts, Volume 3, No. 2. Retrieved from https://ojs.aaresearchindex.com/index.php/AAJMRA/article/view/8440
Gedik, O. and Akyol, H. (2022). Reading diffi-culty and development of fluent reading skills: an action research. International Journal of Progressive Education, Volume 18 Number 1. DOI: 10.29329/ijpe.2022.426.2. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1332254.pdf
Greenwood, P., Dudley, J., Hutton, J., DiFran-cesco, M., Farah, R., and Horowitz-Kraus, T. (2021). Higher maternal education is related to negative functional connectivi-ty between attention system networks and reading-related regions in children with reading difficulties compared to typ-ical readers. Brain Research, Volume 1766, ISSN 0006-8993. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2021.147532.
Hamilton, S. (2023). Reading difficulty in chil-dren: interventions. UpToDate. Retrieved from https://www.uptodate.com/contents/reading-difficulty-in-children-interventions.
Hanly, M., Edwards, B., Goldfeld, S. Craven, R. G., Mooney, J., Jorm, L., and Falster, K. (2019). School starting age and child de-velopment in a state-wide, population-level cohort of children in their first year of school in New South Wales, Australia. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, Vol-ume 48, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2019.01.008. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0885200619300110
Hicks, T. (2023). The effect of reading habits on academic success. Culminating Expe-rience Projects. 389. Retrieved from https://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/gradprojects/389
Hubag, D. M., Elona, E. F., and Felisilda, M. J. M. (2021). Effectiveness of project PFRATH on reading performance of grade one pu-pils in mother tongue based-multilingual education. International Journal of Inter-disciplinary Studies, Vol. 2, n. 3 e-ISSN: 2675-9780. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.51798/sijis.v2i3.125
Idulog, M. V., Gadiano, R., Toledo, E., and Her-mosada, M. (2023). Filipino students’ reading abilities: a note on the challenges and potential areas for improvement. In-ternational Journal of Education and Teaching Zone, Vol. 2, Issue No. 2. DOI:10.57092/ijetz.v2i2.128.
Jensen, V. (2023). Teaching phonological awareness to children in early literacy acquisition: an analysis of a district’s kin-dergarten core language arts curriculum material. University of Nebraska Omaha. Retrieved from https://digitalcommons.unomaha.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1041&context=edleadstudent.
Kelly, S. (2021). Best practices in early child-hood literacy. UCONN NEAG School of Education. Retrieved from https://education.uconn.edu/2021/10/20/best-practices-in-early-childhood-literacy/
Kemanae, Z. S. and Mnjokaya, C. (2022). As-sessment of family income on pupil’s ed-ucation and their academic performance in primary school in Arusha City. Journal of Research Innovation and Implications in Education.
Center for Research Implications and Practice. ISSN 2520-7504 (Online) Vol.6, Iss.1. Re-trieved from loads/2022/03/JRIIE-6-1-027.pdf.
Li, Z. and Qiu, Z. (2018). How does family background affect children’s educational achievement? Evidence from Contempo-rary China. J. Chin. Sociol. 5, 13. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1186/s40711-018-0083-8
Mao, M., Zang, L., and Zhang, H. (2020). The effects of parental absence on children development: evidence from left-behind children in China. International Journal of Environment Research and Public Health. doi: 10.3390/ijerph17186770. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7559575/
McCombes, S. (2023, June 22). Descriptive Re-search | Definition, Types, Methods & Ex-amples. Scribbr. Retrieved from https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/descriptive-research/
Nieporent, F. (2021). What is reading fluency? and why is it important? Retrieved from https://mylearningspringboard.com/what-is-reading-fluency-and-why-is-it-important/
Oyekola, F., Tella, A., Adeyemo, G. O., and Oyeweso, M. O. (2020). Impact of mother tongue on primary pupils’ literacy and numeracy skills in Osun State.
International Online Journal of Primary Educa-tion, Volume 9, Number 2. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1283007.pdf.
Pollard, C. (2021). How many students are actually reading below grade level?! smarter intervention. Retrieved from https://www.ascendlearningcenter.com/blog-highlights/howmanystudents.
Quinn, J. M. (2018). Differential identification of females and males with reading diffi-culties: a meta-analysis. Read Writ.;31(5):1039-1061. doi: 10.1007/s11145-018-9827-8. Epub 2018 Feb 2. PMID: 29962661; PMCID: PMC6023418.
Randazzo, M., Greenspon, E. B., Booth, J. R., and McNorgan, C. (2019). Children with reading difficulty rely on unimodal neural processing for phonemic awareness. Front Hum Neurosci. 2019 Nov 14;13:390. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2019.00390. Erratum in: Front Hum Neurosci. 2020 Aug 21;14:313. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2020.00313. PMID: 31798430; PMCID: PMC6868065.
Rasanen, J. (2020). Age and ageing: what do they mean? Wiley Online Library. Re-trieved from https://doi.org/10.1111/rati.12284
Rohimah, S. (2021). Reading difficulties and factors affecting reading difficulties of Students of grade 1 elementary school. LADU: Journal of Languages and Educa-tion. Vol. 1, No.5.
Tadese, M., Yeshaneh, A. & Mulu, G.B. (2022). Determinants of good academic perfor-mance among university students in Ethi-opia: a cross-sectional study. BMC Med Educ 22, 395. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-022-03461-0
Tomas, M., Villaros, E. and Galman, S. (2021) The perceived challenges in reading of learners: basis for school reading pro-grams. Open Journal of Social Sciences, 9, 107-122. doi: 10.4236/jss.2021.95009.
Tuell, L. (2021). Socioeconomic impact on reading comprehension. Retrieved from
https://scholarworks.calstate.edu/downloads/gf06g7886.
Vasilyeva, M., Antipkina, I., Coughlan, M., and Kardanova, E. (2021). Sex differences in first graders' literacy skills are mediated by parental input. Journal of Applied De-velopmental Psychology 76 (4). DOI:10.1016/j.appdev.2021.101318. Re-search Gate. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/354246112_Sex_differences_in_first_grad-ers'_literacy_skills_are_mediated_by_parental_input
Vázquez-Cano, E., De la Calle-Cabrera, A. M., Hervás-Gómez, C., & López-Meneses, E. (2020). Socio-family context and its influ-ence on students’ PISA reading perfor-mance scores: Evidence from three coun-tries in three continents. Educational Sci-ences: Theory and Practice, 20(2), 50 - 62. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.12738/jestp.2020.2.004.
Wang, W.; Dong, Y.; Liu, X.; Bai, Y.; and Zhang, L. (2020). The effect of parents’ educa-tion on the academic and non-cognitive outcomes of their children: evidence from China. Children and Youth Services Review, Volume 117, 105307, ISSN 0190-7409. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105307.
Xiaofeng, M., Wenhui, D., and Aibao, Z. (2018). The link between parental absence and poor reading comprehension: evidence from the left-behind children in Rural China. Frontiers Educ., Volume 3. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2018.00071
Xhomara, N. (2023). Relationship between gender and academic performance. Re-trieved from https://uet.edu.al/polis/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Relationship-between-gender-and-academic-performance-of-reading-writing-and-literature-mathematics-and-science.pdf
Agbofa, F. J. K. (2023). Assessment of the im-pact of reading difficulties on learners’ academic performance: a case of junior high schools in the New Juaben North Municipal of Ghana. Creative Education, 14, 124-136. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.4236/ce.2023.141010
Ahmad, S., Ajmal, F., and Hafeez, M. (2023). Effects of fathers’ level of education on their children’s english reading perfor-mance. Archives of Educational Studies (ARES), 3(1), 79–96. Retrieved from https://ares.pk/ojs/index.php/ares/article/view/52
Alibraheim, E. A. and Taifour, E. A. (2023). The relationship between mothers’ educa-tional levels and their children’s academ-ic performance. Pegem Journal of Educa-tion and Instruction, Volume 13, No. 3. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1387928.pdf.
Ampofo, J. A. (2019). Research topic: investi-gating reading difficulties among class six pupils of Wa basic school complex. Lam-bert Academic Publishing. Research Gate. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342165160_RESEARCH_TOPIC_INVESTIGAT-ING_READING_DIFFICULTIES_AMONG_CLASS_SIX_PUPILS_OF_WA_BASIC_SCHOOL_COMPLEX
Bannow B. S. and Cushman, M. (2023). Sex matters: policy on reporting sex as a bio-logical variable at research and practice in thrombosis and hemostasis. Res Pract Thromb Haemost. 2023 Nov 7;7(8):102256. doi: 10.1016/j.rpth.2023.102256. PMID: 38053984; PMCID: PMC10694598.
Bano, J., Jabeen, Z., and Qutoshi, S. (2018). Perceptions of teachers about the role of parents in developing reading habits of children to improve their academic per-formance in schools. Journal of Education and Educational Development. 5. 10.22555/joeed.v5i1.1445.
Barberg, J. (2022). The effect of choice in read-ing: motivation, engagement, andEnjoy-ment. Minnesota State University Moor-head. Retrieved from https://red.mnstate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1767&context=thesis.
Brooks, John R., "The Definitions of Income" (2018). Georgetown Law Faculty Publi-cations and Other Works. 1952. Retrieved from https://scholarship.law.georgetown.edu/facpub/1952
Brower, R. A. (2020). The relationship be-tween entrance age and academic achievement in literacy skills for kinder-garten students in a rural school. Re-trieved from https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/cgi/viewcon-tent.cgi?params=/context/doctoral/article/3406/&path_info=Brower_Manuscript_FINAL.pdf
Buckle, J. (2023). How to write an intervention plan. Panorama Education. Retrieved from https://www.panoramaed.com/how-to-write-intervention-plan-tem-plate#:~:text=for%202023%2D24,What%20Is%20an%20Intervention%20Plan%3F,timeline%2C%20and%20progress%20monitoring%20method.
Casas, R. R. L. (2023). Family income classifi-cation on students’ academic perfor-mance: a correlational study. Psychology and Education: A Multidisciplinary Jour-nal, Volume: 12, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.8278214. Retrieved from
Retrieved from https://scimatic.org/storage/journals/11/pdfs/1883.pdf
Chen, Q., Kong, Y., Gao, W., & Mo, L. (2018). Effects of socioeconomic status, parent-child relationship, and learning motiva-tion on reading ability. Frontiers in Psy-chology, 9, 1297. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01297
Child Trends. (2018). Educational attainment. Retrieved from www.childtrends.org/?indicators=educational-attainment
Chiu, C. and Ko, H. (2019). Parental factors re-lated to children’s reading: evidence from Comparing transnational marriage fami-lies and local families. Retrieved from https://www.iea.nl/sites/default/files/2019-04/IRC2008_Chiu_Ko_0.pdf
Claessen, M., Dzidic, P., Boyes, M., Badcock, N., Nayton, M., & Leitao, S. (2020). Educa-tors’ perceptions of the impact of reading difficulties for young people. Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties, 25, 51-64. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1080/19404158.2020.1734952
De Guzman, W. G. and De Vera, P. V. (2018). English language performance and diffi-culties of pupils in the mother tongue – based (MTB) medium of instruction. Re-trieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1247323.pdf
Department of Education. (2019). ‘Bawat bata bumabasa’ a priority in DepEd’s quest for quality education. Retrieved from https://www.deped.gov.ph/2019/11/28/bawat-bata-bumabasa-a-priority-in-depeds-quest-for-quality-education/
Dong, et al. (2019). Intergenerational trans-mission of education: the case of rural China. China Economic Review. Re-trieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0190740920312093
Esteves, G. (2019). Reading ability of grade 1 pupils in Tabangao elementary school. Ascendens Asia Journal of Multidiscipli-nary Research Abstracts, Volume 3, No. 2. Retrieved from https://ojs.aaresearchindex.com/index.php/AAJMRA/article/view/8440
Gedik, O. and Akyol, H. (2022). Reading diffi-culty and development of fluent reading skills: an action research. International Journal of Progressive Education, Volume 18 Number 1. DOI: 10.29329/ijpe.2022.426.2. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1332254.pdf
Greenwood, P., Dudley, J., Hutton, J., DiFran-cesco, M., Farah, R., and Horowitz-Kraus, T. (2021). Higher maternal education is related to negative functional connectivi-ty between attention system networks and reading-related regions in children with reading difficulties compared to typ-ical readers. Brain Research, Volume 1766, ISSN 0006-8993. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2021.147532.
Hamilton, S. (2023). Reading difficulty in chil-dren: interventions. UpToDate. Retrieved from https://www.uptodate.com/contents/reading-difficulty-in-children-interventions.
Hanly, M., Edwards, B., Goldfeld, S. Craven, R. G., Mooney, J., Jorm, L., and Falster, K. (2019). School starting age and child de-velopment in a state-wide, population-level cohort of children in their first year of school in New South Wales, Australia. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, Vol-ume 48, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2019.01.008. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0885200619300110
Hicks, T. (2023). The effect of reading habits on academic success. Culminating Expe-rience Projects. 389. Retrieved from https://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/gradprojects/389
Hubag, D. M., Elona, E. F., and Felisilda, M. J. M. (2021). Effectiveness of project PFRATH on reading performance of grade one pu-pils in mother tongue based-multilingual education. International Journal of Inter-disciplinary Studies, Vol. 2, n. 3 e-ISSN: 2675-9780. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.51798/sijis.v2i3.125
Idulog, M. V., Gadiano, R., Toledo, E., and Her-mosada, M. (2023). Filipino students’ reading abilities: a note on the challenges and potential areas for improvement. In-ternational Journal of Education and Teaching Zone, Vol. 2, Issue No. 2. DOI:10.57092/ijetz.v2i2.128.
Jensen, V. (2023). Teaching phonological awareness to children in early literacy acquisition: an analysis of a district’s kin-dergarten core language arts curriculum material. University of Nebraska Omaha. Retrieved from https://digitalcommons.unomaha.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1041&context=edleadstudent.
Kelly, S. (2021). Best practices in early child-hood literacy. UCONN NEAG School of Education. Retrieved from https://education.uconn.edu/2021/10/20/best-practices-in-early-childhood-literacy/
Kemanae, Z. S. and Mnjokaya, C. (2022). As-sessment of family income on pupil’s ed-ucation and their academic performance in primary school in Arusha City. Journal of Research Innovation and Implications in Education.
Center for Research Implications and Practice. ISSN 2520-7504 (Online) Vol.6, Iss.1. Re-trieved from loads/2022/03/JRIIE-6-1-027.pdf.
Li, Z. and Qiu, Z. (2018). How does family background affect children’s educational achievement? Evidence from Contempo-rary China. J. Chin. Sociol. 5, 13. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1186/s40711-018-0083-8
Mao, M., Zang, L., and Zhang, H. (2020). The effects of parental absence on children development: evidence from left-behind children in China. International Journal of Environment Research and Public Health. doi: 10.3390/ijerph17186770. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7559575/
McCombes, S. (2023, June 22). Descriptive Re-search | Definition, Types, Methods & Ex-amples. Scribbr. Retrieved from https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/descriptive-research/
Nieporent, F. (2021). What is reading fluency? and why is it important? Retrieved from https://mylearningspringboard.com/what-is-reading-fluency-and-why-is-it-important/
Oyekola, F., Tella, A., Adeyemo, G. O., and Oyeweso, M. O. (2020). Impact of mother tongue on primary pupils’ literacy and numeracy skills in Osun State.
International Online Journal of Primary Educa-tion, Volume 9, Number 2. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1283007.pdf.
Pollard, C. (2021). How many students are actually reading below grade level?! smarter intervention. Retrieved from https://www.ascendlearningcenter.com/blog-highlights/howmanystudents.
Quinn, J. M. (2018). Differential identification of females and males with reading diffi-culties: a meta-analysis. Read Writ.;31(5):1039-1061. doi: 10.1007/s11145-018-9827-8. Epub 2018 Feb 2. PMID: 29962661; PMCID: PMC6023418.
Randazzo, M., Greenspon, E. B., Booth, J. R., and McNorgan, C. (2019). Children with reading difficulty rely on unimodal neural processing for phonemic awareness. Front Hum Neurosci. 2019 Nov 14;13:390. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2019.00390. Erratum in: Front Hum Neurosci. 2020 Aug 21;14:313. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2020.00313. PMID: 31798430; PMCID: PMC6868065.
Rasanen, J. (2020). Age and ageing: what do they mean? Wiley Online Library. Re-trieved from https://doi.org/10.1111/rati.12284
Rohimah, S. (2021). Reading difficulties and factors affecting reading difficulties of Students of grade 1 elementary school. LADU: Journal of Languages and Educa-tion. Vol. 1, No.5.
Tadese, M., Yeshaneh, A. & Mulu, G.B. (2022). Determinants of good academic perfor-mance among university students in Ethi-opia: a cross-sectional study. BMC Med Educ 22, 395. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-022-03461-0
Tomas, M., Villaros, E. and Galman, S. (2021) The perceived challenges in reading of learners: basis for school reading pro-grams. Open Journal of Social Sciences, 9, 107-122. doi: 10.4236/jss.2021.95009.
Tuell, L. (2021). Socioeconomic impact on reading comprehension. Retrieved from
https://scholarworks.calstate.edu/downloads/gf06g7886.
Vasilyeva, M., Antipkina, I., Coughlan, M., and Kardanova, E. (2021). Sex differences in first graders' literacy skills are mediated by parental input. Journal of Applied De-velopmental Psychology 76 (4). DOI:10.1016/j.appdev.2021.101318. Re-search Gate. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/354246112_Sex_differences_in_first_grad-ers'_literacy_skills_are_mediated_by_parental_input
Vázquez-Cano, E., De la Calle-Cabrera, A. M., Hervás-Gómez, C., & López-Meneses, E. (2020). Socio-family context and its influ-ence on students’ PISA reading perfor-mance scores: Evidence from three coun-tries in three continents. Educational Sci-ences: Theory and Practice, 20(2), 50 - 62. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.12738/jestp.2020.2.004.
Wang, W.; Dong, Y.; Liu, X.; Bai, Y.; and Zhang, L. (2020). The effect of parents’ educa-tion on the academic and non-cognitive outcomes of their children: evidence from China. Children and Youth Services Review, Volume 117, 105307, ISSN 0190-7409. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105307.
Xiaofeng, M., Wenhui, D., and Aibao, Z. (2018). The link between parental absence and poor reading comprehension: evidence from the left-behind children in Rural China. Frontiers Educ., Volume 3. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2018.00071
Xhomara, N. (2023). Relationship between gender and academic performance. Re-trieved from https://uet.edu.al/polis/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/Relationship-between-gender-and-academic-performance-of-reading-writing-and-literature-mathematics-and-science.pdf