Assessment of Special Weapons and Tactics in the Province of Cavite: Basis for A Proposed Swat Operational Guidelines
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.11594/Keywords:
SWAT, Tactical operations, Police readiness, Operational guidelines, Philippine National Police, Equipment, TrainingAbstract
This study assessed the Special Weapons and Tactics (SWAT) units of the Philippine National Police in the Province of Cavite to serve as a basis for proposed operational guidelines. The study examined the personnel profile, perceptions regarding the selection process, facilities and equipment, and skills and capabilities, as well as the problems encountered and the solutions applied. A descriptive– correlational research design was employed using a researcher-made questionnaire validated by field experts. Data were collected from 105 SWAT personnel and analyzed using frequency, percentage, mean, Chi-square, and Spearman’s Rho.
Findings revealed that while SWAT units are composed of capable and resilient personnel, several gaps remain in equipment, training, and administrative support. Most respondents possessed only a bachelor’s degree, and a large proportion had attended only one specialized training session, indicating limited opportunities for advanced tactical development. The results also showed that rank and age were the least influential criteria in selection, suggesting a shift toward merit-based recruitment focused on capability and readiness.
Statistical tests indicated varying levels of relationships between profile variables, perceptions, problems, and solutions. Based on the findings, operational guidelines were proposed to address equipment procurement, training enhancement, personnel welfare, and administrative support. The study contributes to improving the readiness and effectiveness of SWAT units in the province.
Downloads
References
Alkaabi, H., Lohman, E., Alameri, M., Daher, N., Čvorović, A., & Jaber, H. (2023). Correla-tion between functional movement screen scores, lower limb strength, y-balance test, grip strength, and vertical jump and incidence of injury due to mus-culoskeletal injury among abu dhabi po-lice recruits. Physical Therapy Rehabili-tation Science, 12(3), 222-228. https://doi.org/10.14474/ptrs.2023.12.3.222
Anåker, A., Koch, L. v., Eriksson, G., Sjöstrand, C., & Elf, M. (2020). The physical environ-ment and multi- professional teamwork in three newly built stroke units. Disabil-ity and Rehabilitation, 44(7), 1098-1106. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638288.2 020.1793008
Ares, L., Gomez, P., & Torres, M. (2023). The importance of equipment and training in SWAT operations: A study of perceptions and challenges. Journal of Criminal Jus-tice, 72, 102456. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2 023.102456
Ares, M., Lopez, J., & Ramirez, T. (2023). The importance of equipment and training in SWAT operations: A study of perceptions and challenges. Journal of Criminal Jus-tice, 58(4), 102456. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2 023.102456
Barczak‐Scarboro, N., Roby, P., Kiefer, A., Bai-lar‐Heath, M., Burke, R., DeLellis, S., … & Mihalik, J. (2021). The relationship be-tween resilience and neurophysiological stress in special operations forces combat service members. European Journal of Neuroscience, 55(9-10), 2804-2812. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejn.15109
Bautista, R., Villanueva, J., & Dela Cruz, S. (2023). Operational readiness and tacti-cal effectiveness of the SWAT units in emergency situations. Police Quarterly, 26(2), 142–160. https://doi.org/10.1177/003225762 1997462
Bondarenko, V., Охріменко, І., Piaskovskyi, V., Antoshchuk, A., & Марчук, А. (2022). Sci-entific tools for forming professional competence of patrol police officers. International Journal of Assessment and Research in Education (Ijere), 11(2), 687. https://doi.org/10.11591/ijere.v11i2.21987
Burlakova, I., Melnychuk, D., Oksiutovych, M., & Nikolaienko, S. (2023). Psychological well-being and strategy to counter professional burnout among law enforcement officers. Public Administration and Law Review, (3), 69-77. https://doi.org/10.36690/2674-5216-2023-3-69-77
Butler, J. M., Gothe, N. P., & Petruzzello, S. J. (2023). An exploratory study on the im-pact of physical training on police recruits’ self-efficacy in handling violent encoun-ters. Martial Arts Studies, 13, 61-70. https://doi.org/10.18573/mas.130
Caesar, M., & Santos, J. (2023). Leadership styles and decision-making processes in tactical units: An empirical analysis. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 38(1), 45–60. https://doi.org/10.1177/116282442 1997817
Cameron, K. S., & Whetten, D. A. (1983). Organ-izational effectiveness: A comparison of multiple models. Academic Press.
Chen, X., & Yang, Y. (2023). The Influence of Field Experience on the Effectiveness of Police Tactical Operations: Insights from Recent Research. Journal of Police Studies, 36(3), 215-227.
Cyr, K., Ricciardelli, R., & Spencer, D. (2020). Militarization of police: A comparison of police paramilitary units in Canada and the United States. International Journal of Police Science & Management, 22(1), 22-31. https://doi.org/10.1177/146135571 9898204
Cyr, K., Ricciardelli, R., & Spencer, D. (2020). Militarization of police: a comparison of police paramilitary units in CanadA and the United States. International Journal of Police Science &Amp; Man-agement, 22(2), 137-147. https://doi.org/10.1177/146135571 9898204
Daft, R. L. (2016). Organization theory and de-sign (12th ed.). Cengage Learning.
Dodge, M., Valcore, L., & Gomez, F. (2011). Women on swat teams: separate but equal?. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies &Amp; Management, 34(4), 699-712. https://doi.org/10.1108/136395111 11180298
Douglas, H. (2019). Policing domestic and fam-ily violence. International Journal for Crime Justice and Social Democracy, 8(2), 31-49. https://doi.org/10.5204/ijcjsd.v8i2.1 122
Drew, A., Keller, T., Spencer, R., & Herrera, C. (2020). Investigating mentor commit-ment in youth mentoring relationships: the role of perceived program practices. Journal of Community Psychology, 48(7), 2264-2276. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.22409
Elteren, C. v., Lees, M., & Vasconcelos, V. V. (2024). Criminal organizations exhibit hysteresis, resilience, and robustness by balancing security and efficiency. https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs- 4108278/v1
Engel, R., Corsaro, N., Isaza, G., & McManus, H. (2022). Assessing the impact of de‐escalation training on police behavior: re-ducing police use of force in the Louis-ville, Metro Police Department. Criminol-ogy & Public Policy, 21(2), 199-233. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745- 9133.12574
Erdogan, M., & Alshahrani, S. (2022). En-hancing law enforcement operational performance through realistic training scenarios: An empirical study. Journal of Criminal Justice, 50(1), 87-95.
Ferguson, L. and Gaub, J. (2021). Training po-lice search and rescue teams: implica-tions for missing persons work. Criminol-ogy & Criminal Justice, 23(3), 431-449. https://doi.org/10.1177/174889582 11057380
Ferrara, J., Kim, R., Gruber, J., Arthur, K., Chen, E., Thuraisingham, D., … & Conte, A. (2020). Operational and clinical imple-mentation plan for an anesthesiologist-led coronavirus- 2019 hospital “swat” team. Int J Anes Srg, 1(1). https://doi.org/10.31038/ijas.20201 11
Franklin, A., Perkins, R., Kirby, M., & Richmond, K. (2019). The influence of police related media, victimization, and satisfaction on African American college students' per-ceptions of police. Frontiers in Sociology, https://doi.org/10.3389/fsoc.2019.0 0065
Frenkel et al. (2021). The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on European police officers: Stress, demands, and coping resources. Journal of Criminal Justice. doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2020.101756
Fretes, D. R. D., Zainuddin, A., Darmawati, D., Muhammadong, M., & Dewi, P. M. (2023). Challenges in enforcing hate speech laws in Indonesian politics. International Jour-nal of Humanities, Social Sciences and Business (Injoss), 2(3), 418-442. https://doi.org/10.54443/injoss.v2i3.89
Hernandez, F., Martinez, R., & Lopez, V. (2022). Evaluating the impact of organizational structure on SWAT performance. Psychological Assessment Studies, 14(3), 215–229. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000954
Hernandez, P., Diaz, L., & Santos, M. (2022). Evaluating the impact of organizational structure on SWAT performance. Psy-chological Assessment, 34(3), 223-237. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000954 Howard, S. and Vine, K. (2024). “it’s like we are seen as animals”: the relationship between black people’s encounters with the police, metadehumanization, and per-ceptions of police legitimacy. Cultural-Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000669 Hussain, S., Niyazi, B., Elfeki, A., Masoud, M., Wang, X., & Awais, M. (2024).
Swat-driven exploration of runoff dynamics in hyper-arid region, Saudi Arabia: Implica-tions for hydrological understanding. Wa-ter, 16(14), 2043. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16142043 Jenkins, D., Burton, C., & Holmes, D. (2022). Gender influences in the inter-section of acute care registered nurses and law enforcement., 45(2), 170-178. https://doi.org/10.1097/ans.000000 0000000413
Keeler, J. M., Pohl, M. B., Bergstrom, H. C., Thomas, J. M., & Abel, M. G. (2019). The effect of tactical tasks and gear on muscle activation of swat officers. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 36(1), 238-244. https://doi.org/10.1519/jsc.0000000 000003396
Kleygrewe, L., Oudejans, R. R. D., Koedijk, M., & Hutter, V. (2022). Police training in prac-tice: organization and delivery according to European law enforcement agencies. Frontiers in Psychology, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021. 798067
Koedijk, M., Renden, P., Oudejans, R., & Hutter, V. (2019). Training for the job: assess-ment of a self-defence training pro-gramme for correctional officers. Ergo-nomics, 62(12), 1585-1597. https://doi.org/10.1080/00140139.2 019.1677947
Kruis, N., Donohue, R., Glunt, N., Rowland, N., & Choi, J. (2023). Examining the effects of perceptions of police effective-ness, procedural justice, and legitimacy on racial differences in anticipated co-operation with law enforcement in Pennsylvania. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 34(6), 511-533. https://doi.org/10.1177/088740342 31199922
Lachica, P., Ramos, D., & Navarro, E. (2023). Leadership traits for tactical operations: What makes a suc-cessful SWAT team leader? In Leader-ship in Law Enforcement (pp. 110-130). Emerald Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1108/978178635 9056-010
Legewie, J. and Fagan, J. (2019). Aggressive po-licing and the educational performance of minority youth. American Sociological Review, 84(2), 220-247. https://doi.org/10.1177/000312241 9826020
Leng, M., Yu, Y., Wang, S.-P., & Zhang, Z. (2020). Simulating the hydrological processes of a meso-scale watershed on the Loess Plat-eau, China. Water, 12(3), 878. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12030878
Lenhard, A., Daoud, M., Donahue, L., Jones, S., Kip, P. L., Zapf, R. L., & Minnier, T. E. (2024). How SWAT changed the conver-sation. Professional Case Management. https://doi.org/10.1097/ncm.000000 0000000712
López, D. (2014). SWAT operations and deadly force: A comparison of national data with the Dorner case. Sociology and Criminology-Open Access. https://doi.org/10.4172/2375- 4435.1000107
Madaki, A. (2020). Insecurity and community policing: impact on adolescent education-al attainment in nigeria. British Journal of Education, 8(4),57-69. https://doi.org/10.37745/bje/vol8.no4.p57-69.2020
Mäntysaari, L., & Häkkinen, A. (2021). The role of continuous training in police tactical response teams: A multi- country exami-nation. Policing, 15(2), 211-220.
Marins, E. F., Barbosa, O., Machado, E. S., Orr, R. M., Dawes, J., & Vecchio, F. B. D. (2020). Profile of self-reported physical tasks and physical training in Brazilian special oper-ations units: a web-based cross-sectional study. International Journal of Environ-mental Research and Public Health, 17(19), 7135. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17197 135
McLean, K., Wolfe, S., Rojek, J., Alpert, G., & Smith, M. (2020). Randomized controlled trial of social interaction police training. Criminology & Public Policy, 19(3), 805-832. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745- 9133.12506
Miles‐Johnson, T. (2023). Insufficient guidance and a lack of preparation: Police academy training and the reality of police work. Journal of Criminology,56(2-3), 213-233. https://doi.org/10.1177/263380762 31167880
Newiss et al. (2021). Taking the strain? Police well-being in the COVID-19 era. The po-lice journal theory practice and princi-ples. doi:10.1177/0032258x211044702.
Nguyen, Q., Jaspaert, E., Murtinger, M., Schrom-Feiertag, H., Egger-Lampl, S., & Tscheligi, M. (2021). Stress out: translating real-world stressors into audio-visual stress cues for police training., 551-561. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-85616-8_32
Nieves, A., Cruz, M., & Salazar, L. (2022). As-sessing team cohesion and its effects on SWAT operational effectiveness. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 35(4), 732–748. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocm.12450
Nota, P., Arpaia, J., Boychuk, E., Collins, P., & Andersen, J. (2021). Testing the efficacy of a 1-day police decision-making and au-tonomic modulation intervention: a qua-si- random pragmatic controlled trial. Frontiers in Psychology, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.719046
O’Connor, J. P., & Becker, R. A. (2023). Field Experience and its Impact on Tactical De-cision-Making in Law Enforcement: Evi-dence from SWAT Units. Journal of Tacti-cal Science, 11(2), 45-59.
Oliver et al. (2025). A retrospective regression analysis on the dynamic shooting scores of SWAT operators. Translational Journal of the American College of Sports Medi-cine. doi:10.1249/tjx.0000000000000285
Oliver, K., Jiroutek, M. R., Labhart, J., & Bunn, J. (2025). A retrospective regression analy-sis on the dynamic shooting scores of swat operators. Translational Journal of the American College of Sports Medicine, 10(1). https://doi.org/10.1249/tjx.0000000000000285
Pineda, G., & Reyes, T. (2024). Investigating the role assignment process in tactical police units: A study of team performance and efficiency. Policing: An International Journal, 47(1), 85–101. https://doi.org/10.1002/pol.12967
Poyil, S. and Sekar, G. (2023). Effect of yo-gic practice on stress and resting heart rate among stressed middle- aged men police personnel in Kerala Police Acade-my Thrissur. Journal of Advanced Zoolo-gy, 44(S-5), 2385-2387. https://doi.org/10.17762/jaz.v44is- 5.1857
Prates, M., Avelar, P., Lemos, H., Lamb, L., & Vardi, M. (2019). Learning to solve np-complete problems: a graph neural net-work for decision tsp. Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelli-gence, 33(01), 4731-4738. https://doi.org/10.1609/aaai.v33i01. 33014731
Quinto, R., Del Rosario, J., & Salonga, N. (2021). Challenges in SWAT training: Identifying key factors affecting readiness and performance. Police Practice and Re-search, 22(3), 298–315. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751- 5629.2020.00331.x
Rafizal, J., Nyoto, N., Sudarno, S., & Sultan, F. M. M. (2022). Organizational culture, work environment, and workload on the performance of POLRI members (case study in pekanbaru police criminal re-serve unit). Journal of Applied Business and Technology, 3(3), 263-271. https://doi.org/10.35145/jabt.v3i3.1 11
Rezende, L. F. C. d., Dellagrana, R. A., Oliveira‐Santos, L. G. R., Cruz, A. D. F. C., Mota, M. F. d. S., & Coelho‐Ravagnani, C. d. F. (2022). Physical performance of Brazilian military policemen: A longitu-dinal analysis by occupational specialties. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(24), 16948. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19241 6948
Roberts, S. C., Zahabi, M., McCarthy, L. A., & Romero, J. (2023). Law enforcement per-spectives on police vehicle cybersecurity. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 67(1), 2300-2304. https://doi.org/10.1177/216950672 31192578
Santoso, B. and Riyadi, B. (2023). The state ad-ministrative of law: implementation of the police education in Indonesia. Inter-national Journal of Membrane Science and Technology, 10(4), 702-715. https://doi.org/10.15379/ijmst.v10i 4.2122
Sepúlveda, I., Nieto, Y., & González, R. (2022). Determinants of the need for postgraduate training. Industry and High-er Education, 37(1), 143-152. https://doi.org/10.1177/095042222 21110468
Setyawan, V. and Halim, C. (2024). The im-portance of law enforcement based on progressive law in realizing community welfare. Unes Law Review, 6(3), 8987-8991. https://doi.org/10.31933/unesrev.v6 i3.1797
Simas et al. (2022). Factors Influencing Marksmanship in Police Officers: A narra-tive review. International Journal of En-vironmental Research and Public Health. doi:10.3390/ijerph192114236.
Sjöberg, A., Larsson, A., & Tedeholm, P. (2024). Using the five-factor model of personality to identify an optimal swat team mem-ber. International Journal of Police Sci-ence & Management, 27(1), 3-15. https://doi.org/10.1177/146135572 41245623
Sjöberg, A., Larsson, A., & Tedeholm, P. G. (2024). Using the five-factor model of personality to identify an optimal swat team member. International Journal of Police Science &Amp; Management, 27(1), 3-15. https://doi.org/10.1177/146135572 41245623
Skoglund, T. H., Brekke, T.-H., Steder, F. B., & Boe, O. (2020). Big five personality pro-files in the Norwegian special operations forces. Frontiers in Psychology. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020. 00747
Sotelo, M., Villanueva, A., & Delgado, R. (2024) Adapting roles and responsibilities among SWAT operators: The impact of interventions on team dynamics. Journal of Organizational Management, 40(1), 12–28. https://doi.org/10.1111/jonm.12975
Stannard, J. and Fortington, L. (2021). Musculoskeletal injury in military spe-cial operations forces: a systematic re-view. BMJ Military Health, 167(4), 255-265. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjmilitary-2020-001692
Strader, J., Schram, B., Irving, S., Robinson, J., & Orr, R. M. (2020). Special weapons and tactics occupational-specific physical as-sessments and fitness measures. Interna-tional Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(21), 8070. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17218 070
Swan, E., Lynch, T., Sheean, A., Schmitz, M., Dickens, J., & Patzkowski, J. (2022). High incidence of combined and posterior labral tears in military patients with op-erative shoulder instability. The Ameri-can Journal of Sports Medicine, 50(6), 1529-1533. https://doi.org/10.1177/036354652 21078609
Taylor, T. and Wilcox, M. (2021). Patriotism and perceptions of police: examining the racial divide between black and white Americans. Translational Issues in Psy-chological Science, 7(4), 392- 404. https://doi.org/10.1037/tps0000287
Thomas, R., Schram, B., Irving, S., Rob-inson, J., & Orr, R. M. (2019). Associations between specialist tactical response po-lice unit selection success and urban rush, along with 2.4 km and 10 km loaded car-riage events. International Journal of En-vironmental Research and Public Health, 16(19), 3558. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16193 558
Tomes, C., Canetti, E., Schram, B., & Orr, R. (2025). Ultra‐short‐term versus short‐term measures of heart rate variability in specialist police units: A pilot reliability study. Physiological Reports, 13(2). https://doi.org/10.14814/phy2.7018 2
Watson, E. L., & Daniel, C. (2022). Practical Ex-perience as a Key Factor in Law
Enforcement Preparedness: A Study of Tactical Units. International Journal of Police Science & Management, 24(4), 345-356.
Weyden, J., Cruz, P., & Tan, E. (2021). Cross-training and role flexibility in tactical law enforcement teams. Tactical Operations Review, 17(2), 89–105.
Weyden, M. S. v. d., Black, C. D., Larson, D. J., Rollberg, B., & Campbell, J. (2021). Devel-opment of a fitness test battery for spe-cial weapons and tactics (swat) opera-tors: A pilot study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(15), 7992. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18157 992
Weyden, M., Black, C., Larson, D., Rollberg, B., & Campbell, J. (2021). Development of a fit-ness test battery for special weapons and tactics (swat) operators: A pilot study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(15), 7992.https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18157 992
Wolfe, S., Rojek, J., McLean, K., & Alpert, G. (2020). Social interaction training to re-duce police use of force. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 687(1), 124-145. https://doi.org/10.1177/000271621 9887366
Young, A., Hennington, C., & Eggleston, D. (2018). Us swat operator experience, per-sonality, cognitive- emotion regulation and decision- making style. Policing an International Journal, 41(2), 247-261. https://doi.org/10.1108/pijpsm-10-2016-0156
Zwingmann, L., Zedler, M., Kurzner, S., Wahl, P., & Goldmann, J. (2021). How fit are special operations police officers? a comparison with elite athletes from Olympic disci-plines. Frontiers in Sports and Active Liv-ing, 3. https://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2021.742655
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
Categories
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Juanito A. Vergara Jr, John Paul R. Mallillin, Caezar P. Cabuhat
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See the Effect of Open Access).
